J/A+A/694/A24ivo://CDS.VizieR/J/A+A/694/A24doi:10.26093/cds/vizier.36940024CDSMotte F.Pouteau Y.Nony T.Dell'Ova P.Gusdorf A.Brouillet N.,Stutz A.M.Bontemps S.Ginsburg A.Csengeri T.Men'shchikov A.,Valeille-Manet M.Louvet F.Bonfand M.Galvan-Madrid R.,Alvarez-Gutierrez R.H.Armante M.Bronfman L.Chen H.-R.V.,Cunningham N.Diaz-Gonzalez D.Didelon P.Fernandez-Lopez M.,Herpin F.Kessler N.Koley A.Lefloch B.Le Nestour N.Liu H.-L.,Moraux E.Nguyen Luong Q.Olguin F.Salinas J.Sandoval-Garrido N.A.,Sanhueza P.Veyry R.Yoo T.2026-04-07T20:02:42Z2025-01-30T12:08:45ZCDS support team

CDS, Observatoire de Strasbourg, 11 rue de l'Universite, F-67000 Strasbourg, France

cds-question@unistra.frstar-forming-regionsinfrared-sourcesinterstellar-mediumyoung-stellar-objectsThe ALMA-IMF Large Program imaged 15 massive protoclusters down to a resolution of 2kau scales, identifying about 1000 star-forming cores. The mass and luminosity of these cores, which are fundamental physical characteristics, are difficult to determine, a problem greatly exacerbated at the distances >2kpc of ALMA-IMF protoclusters. We combined new datasets and radiative transfer modeling to characterize these cores. We estimated their mass-averaged temperature and the masses these estimates imply. For one-sixth of the sample, we measured the bolometric luminosities, implementing deblending corrections when necessary. We used spectral energy distribution (SED) analysis obtained with the point process mapping (PPMAP) Bayesian procedure, which aims to preserve the best angular resolution of the input data. We extrapolated the luminosity and dust temperature images provided by PPMAP at 2.5" resolution to estimate those of individual cores, which were identified at higher angular resolution. To do this, we applied approximate radiative transfer relationships between the luminosity of a protostar and the temperature of its surrounding envelope and between the external heating of prestellar cores and their temperatures. For the first time, we provide data-informed estimates of dust temperatures for 882 cores identified with ALMA-IMF: 17-31K and 28-79K (5th and 95th percentiles, up to 127K) for the 616 prestellar and 266 protostellar cores, respectively. We also measured protostellar luminosities spanning 20-80000L_{sun}_. Dust temperatures previously estimated from SED-based analyses at a comparatively lower resolution validate our method. For hot cores, on the other hand, we estimated systematically lower temperatures than studies based on complex organic molecules. We established a mass-luminosity evolutionary diagram, for the first time at the core spatial resolution and for a large sample of intermediate- to high-mass protostellar cores. The ALMA-IMF data favor a scenario in which protostars accrete their mass from a larger mass reservoir than their host cores.2025A&A...694A..24Mhttps://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/cat/J/A+A/694/A24CatalogResearchIsServedByTAP VizieR generic serviceIsServedByConesearch servicerelated-toJ/A+A/662/A9 : 15 dense molecular cloud regions ALMA images (Ginsburg+, 2022)J/A+A/664/A26 : W43-MM2+MM3 ministarburst ALMA data (Pouteau+, 2022)J/A+A/674/A75 : W43-MM1 and W43-MM2+MM3 ALMA datacubes (Nony+, 2023)J/A+A/687/A217 : 15 massive protoclusters point-process mappingJ/A+A/690/A33 : Core mass function in high-mass star formation (Louvet+, 2024)https://cds.unistra.fr/vizier-org/licences_vizier.htmlhttps://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/694/A24https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/694/A24http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/694/A24https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/694/A24https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/694/A24http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/694/A24GETtext/xml+votablehttps://tapvizier.cds.unistra.fr/TAPVizieR/tapCone search capability for table J/A+A/694/A24/tablec2 (Luminosity peaks in the Evolved G012.80 protocluster and their association with temperature peaks and protostellar cores)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/694/A24/tablec2?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/694/A24/tablec2?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/694/A24/tablec2?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true273.54932-17.925760.005555555555555556Cone search capability for table J/A+A/694/A24/tablec3 (Luminosity and mass-averaged temperature of the protostellar cores driving the six brightest hot cores of ALMA-IMF)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/694/A24/tablec3?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/694/A24/tablec3?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/694/A24/tablec3?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true238.2824583-54.61844440.005555555555555556Cone search capability for table J/A+A/694/A24/tablec7 (Luminosity peaks and their association with temperature peaks and protostellar cores in the Evolved G010.62, G333.60, and W51-IRS2 protoclusters)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/694/A24/tablec7?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/694/A24/tablec7?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/694/A24/tablec7?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true272.6195-19.930540.0055555555555555566/29091 29101 30694 41812 42172https://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/moc/J/A+A/694/A24?format=asciiInfrareddefaultJ/A+A/694/A24/tablec1Luminosity peaks in Young and Intermediate W43 protoclusters and their association with temperature peaks and protostellar coresrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintProtoclusterProtocluster name in the ALMA-IMF samplemeta.id.parentcharLPeakLuminosity peak identifier (1)meta.id;meta.maincharn_LPeak[+] Note on LPeak (2)meta.notecharLbolIntegrated luminosity (1)1000solLumphys.luminosityfloate_LbolIntegrated luminosity error (1)1000solLumstat.errorfloatthetaLbolMean full width at half maximum of the luminosity peak (1)arcsecspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatFWHMLbolMean full width at half maximum of the luminosity peak (1)kauspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatTpeak?[yes/no ] Presence or absence of temperature peak (3)meta.codecharNProtostellar core identifier (4)meta.numberintn_N[*] *: protostellar cores are tentativemeta.notecharthetacoreMean full width at half maximum of the core (5)arcsecspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatDLbolDistance between the centers of the protostellar core and its host luminosity peak (5)arcsecpos.angDistancefloatPPMAPTdustDust temperature measured in the PPMAP temperature image (6)Kphys.temperatureinte_PPMAPTdustTemperature error measured in the error image of the PPMAP temperature (6)Kstat.errorintContribLContribution level of each protostellar core to their associated luminosity peak (7)%phys.luminosity;arith.ratiointJ/A+A/694/A24/tablec2Luminosity peaks in the Evolved G012.80 protocluster and their association with temperature peaks and protostellar coresLPeakLuminosity peak identifier (1)meta.id;meta.maincharrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintProtoclusterProtocluster name in the ALMA-IMF samplemeta.id.parentcharRA_ICRSRight ascension (ICRS) (1)degpos.eq.ra;meta.mainDE_ICRSDeclination (ICRS) (1)degpos.eq.dec;meta.mainLbolIntegrated luminosity (1)1000solLumphys.luminosityfloate_LbolIntegrated luminosity error (1)1000solLumstat.errorfloatthetaLbolMean full width at half maximum of the luminosity peak (1)arcsecspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatFWHMLbolMean full width at half maximum of the luminosity peak (1)kauspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatTpeak?[yes/ no] Presence or absence of temperature peak (2)meta.codecharNProtostellar core identifier (2)meta.numberintn_N[*] *: protostellar cores are tentativemeta.notecharthetacoreMean full width at half maximum of the core, in arcsec (2)arcsecspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatDLbolDistance between the centers of the protostellar core and its host luminosity peakarcsecpos.angDistancefloatPPMAPTdustDust temperature measured in the PPMAP temperature imageKphys.temperatureinte_PPMAPTdustTemperature error measured in the error image of the PPMAP temperatureKstat.errorintContribLContribution level of each protostellar core to their associated luminosity peak%phys.luminosity;arith.ratiointJ/A+A/694/A24/tablec3Luminosity and mass-averaged temperature of the protostellar cores driving the six brightest hot cores of ALMA-IMFContribLMFContribution level to the hot core luminosity (3)%phys.luminosity;arith.ratiointrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintProtoclusterProtocluster name in the ALMA-IMF samplemeta.id.parentcharLProfileLuminosity profile named after methyl formate sources (1)meta.id;meta.maincharRA_ICRSRight ascension of the profile center (ICRS) (1)pos.eq.ra;meta.mainDE_ICRSDeclination of the profile center (ICRS) (1)pos.eq.dec;meta.mainLMFpeakLuminosity estimated using luminosity peaks (lower limit) (2)1000solLumphys.luminosityfloate_LMFpeakError of the luminosity estimated using luminosity peaks (2)1000solLumstat.errorfloatLMFpowLuminosity estimated by integrating the power-law component of the profile (2)1000solLumphys.luminosityinte_LMFpowError of the luminosity estimated by integrating the power-law component of the profile (2)1000solLumstat.errorintLMFtotLuminosity estimated by integrating the total profile (upper limit) (2)1000solLumphys.luminosityinte_LMFtotError of the luminosity estimated by integrating the total profile (2)1000solLumstat.errorintNProtostellar core identifier (3)meta.numberintn_N[*] *: protostellar cores are tentativemeta.notecharLprotopowLuminosity computed from LMFpow and ContribLMF (3)1000solLumphys.luminosityfloate_LprotopowLuminosity error computed from e_LMFpeak and ContribLMF (3)1000solLumstat.errorfloatTLprotoTemperature estimated from LMFpeak (lower limit) (4)Kphys.temperatureinte_TLprotoTemperature error estimated from e_LMFpeak (4)Kstat.errorintTLprotopowTemperature estimated from LMFpow (4)Kphys.temperatureinte_TLprotopowTemperature error estimated from e_LMFpow (4)Kstat.errorintTLprotototTemperature estimated from LMFtot (upper limit) (4)Kphys.temperatureinte_TLprotototTemperature error estimated from e_LMFtot (4)Kstat.errorintJ/A+A/694/A24/tablec4Main characteristics of protostellar cores in the G012.80, W43-MM1, W43-MM2, and W43-MM3 protoclustersrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintProtoclusterProtocluster name in the ALMA-IMF sample (1)meta.id.parentcharNProtostellar core identifiermeta.numberintn_N[*] *: protostellar cores are tentativemeta.notecharRoutOuter radius of the protostellar core (3)auphys.size.radiusintLproto? Protostellar luminosity (4)1000solLumphys.luminosityfloatnullablee_Lproto? Protostellar luminosity error (4)1000solLumstat.errorfloatnullableTcorePPMAPMass-averaged dust temperature of protostellar cores estimated from the PPMAP temperature (5)Kphys.temperatureinte_TcorePPMAPError on the mass-averaged temperature of protostellar cores estimated from the PPMAP temperature (5)Kstat.errorintTcoreLproto? Mass-averaged dust temperature of protostellar cores estimated from Rout and Lproto (6)Kphys.temperatureintnullablee_TcoreLproto? Error on the mass-averaged dust temperature of protostellar cores estimated from Rout, Lproto and e_Lproto (6)Kstat.errorintnullableMeanTcoreAverage dust temperature of protostellar cores from TcorePPMAP and TcoreLproto (7)Kphys.temperatureinte_MeanTcoreError on the average dust temperature of protostellar cores, using TcorePPMAP, e_TcorePPMAP, TcoreLproto and e_TcoreLproto (7)Kstat.errorintMassProtostellar core mass (8)solMassphys.massfloate_MassError on the protostellar core mass (8)solMassstat.error;phys.massfloatCommentsComments on the core nature (9)meta.notecharJ/A+A/694/A24/tablec5Main characteristics of the 616 prestellar cores in the ALMA-IMF protoclustersrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintProtoclusterProtocluster name in the ALMA-IMF samplemeta.id.parentcharNPrestellar core identifier (1)meta.numberintRoutOuter radius of the prestellar core (1)auphys.size.radiusintPPMAPTdustDust temperature measured in the PPMAP temperature image (2)Kphys.temperatureinte_PPMAPTdustTemperature error measured in the error image of the PPMAP temperature (2)Kstat.errorintTcoreMass-averaged temperature of prestellar cores estimated from PPMAPTdust (3)Kphys.temperatureinte_TcoreMass-averaged temperature error of prestellar cores estimated from e_PPMAPTdust (3)Kstat.errorintMassPrestellar core mass (4)solMassphys.massfloate_MassError on the prestellar core mass (4)solMassstat.error;phys.massfloatJ/A+A/694/A24/tablec6Luminosity peaks and their association with temperature peaks and protostellar cores in the Young G327.29, G328.25, G337.92, and G338.93 protoclusters and in the Intermediate G008.67, G353.41, and W51-E protoclustersLPeakLuminosity peak identifier (1)meta.id;meta.maincharLbolIntegrated luminosity (1)1000solLumphys.luminosityfloate_LbolIntegrated luminosity error (1)1000solLumstat.errorfloatthetaLbolMean full width at half maximum of the luminosity peak, in arcsec (1)arcsecspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatFWHMLbolMean full width at half maximum of the luminosity peak, in kau (1)kauspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatTpeak?[yes/no ] Presence or absence of temperature peak (2)meta.codecharrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintProtoclusterProtocluster name in the ALMA-IMF samplemeta.id.parentcharNProtostellar core identifier (3)meta.numberintn_N[*] *: protostellar cores are tentativemeta.notecharthetacoreMean full width at half maximum of the core, in arcsec (3)arcsecspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatDLbolDistance between the centers of the protostellar core and its host luminosity peak (4)arcsecpos.angDistancefloatPPMAPTdustDust temperature measured in the PPMAP temperature image (5)Kphys.temperatureinte_PPMAPTdustTemperature error measured in the error image of the PPMAP temperature (5)Kstat.errorintContribLContribution level of each protostellar core to their associated luminosity peak (6)%phys.luminosity;arith.ratiointJ/A+A/694/A24/tablec7Luminosity peaks and their association with temperature peaks and protostellar cores in the Evolved G010.62, G333.60, and W51-IRS2 protoclustersn_N[*]meta.notecharthetacoreMean full width at half maximum of the core, in arcsecarcsecspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatDLbolDistance between the centers of the protostellar core and its host luminosity peakarcsecpos.angDistancefloatPPMAPTdustDust temperature measured in the PPMAP temperature imageKphys.temperatureinte_PPMAPTdustTemperature error measured in the error image of the PPMAP temperatureKstat.errorintContribLContribution level of each protostellar core to their associated luminosity peak%phys.luminosity;arith.ratiointrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintProtoclusterProtocluster name in the ALMA-IMF samplemeta.id.parentcharLPeakLuminosity peak identifier (1)meta.id;meta.maincharRA_ICRSRight ascension (ICRS) (1)degpos.eq.ra;meta.mainDE_ICRSDeclination (ICRS) (1)degpos.eq.dec;meta.mainLbolIntegrated luminosity (1)1000solLumphys.luminosityfloate_LbolIntegrated luminosity error (1)1000solLumstat.errorfloatthetaLbolMean full width at half maximum of the luminosity peak (1)arcsecspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatFWHMLbolMean full width at half maximum of the luminosity peak (1)kauspect.line.width;stat.meanfloatTpeak?[yes/no ] Presence or absence of temperature peakmeta.codecharNProtostellar core identifiermeta.numberintJ/A+A/694/A24/tablec8Main characteristics of protostellar cores in the G327.29, G328.25, G337.92, G338.93, G008.67, G353.41, W51-E, G010.62, G333.60, and W51-IRS2 protoclustersrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintProtoclusterProtocluster name in the ALMA-IMF samplemeta.id.parentcharNProtostellar core identifier (1)meta.numberintn_N[*] *: tentative protostellar coresmeta.notechare_Lproto? Protostellar luminosity error estimate (3)1000solLumstat.errorfloatnullableTcorePPMAPMass-averaged temperature of protostellar cores estimated from the PPMAP temperature (4)Kphys.temperatureinte_TcorePPMAPError on the mass-averaged temperature of protostellar cores estimated from the PPMAP temperature (4)Kstat.errorintTcoreLproto? Mass-averaged dust temperature of protostellar cores estimated from Rout and Lproto (5)Kphys.temperatureintnullablee_TcoreLproto? Error on the mass-averaged dust temperature of protostellar cores estimated from Rout, Lproto and e_Lproto (5)Kstat.errorintnullableMeanTcoreAverage dust temperature of protostellar cores from TcorePPMAP and TcoreLproto (6)Kphys.temperatureinte_MeanTcoreError on the average dust temperature of protostellar cores, using TcorePPMAP, e_TcorePPMAP, TcoreLproto and e_TcoreLproto (6)Kstat.errorintMass? Protostellar core mass (7)solMassphys.massfloatnullablee_Mass? Error on the protostellar core mass (7)solMassstat.error;phys.massfloatnullableCommentsComments on the core nature (8)meta.notecharRoutOuter radius of the protostellar core (2)auphys.size.radiusintLproto? Protostellar luminosity estimate (3)1000solLumphys.luminosityfloatnullablel_MassLimit flag on Massmeta.code.error;phys.masschar