J/A+A/686/A88ivo://CDS.VizieR/J/A+A/686/A88doi:10.26093/cds/vizier.36860088CDSAntoniadis K.Bonanos A.Z.de Wit S.Zapartas E.Munoz-Sanchez G.,Maravelias G.2024-11-21T20:01:46Z2024-06-04T08:51:16ZCDS support team

CDS, Observatoire de Strasbourg, 11 rue de l'Universite, F-67000 Strasbourg, France

cds-question@unistra.frmagellanic-cloudsstellar-mass-losslate-type-starssupergiant-starsphotometryvisible-astronomyinfrared-astronomyultraviolet-astronomyHigh mass-loss rates of red supergiants (RSGs) drastically affect their evolution and final fate, yet their mass-loss mechanism remains poorly understood. Various empirical prescriptions scaled with luminosity have been derived in the literature, yielding results with a dispersion of 2-3 orders of magnitude. We aim to determine an accurate mass-loss rate relation with luminosity and other parameters using a large, clean sample of RSGs, and hence to shed light on the underlying physical mechanism, and explain the discrepancy between previous works. We assembled a sample of 2219 RSG candidates in the Large Magellanic Cloud, with ultraviolet to mid-infrared photometry in up to 49 filters. We determined the luminosity of each RSG by integrating the spectral energy distribution and the mass-loss rate using the radiative transfer code DUSTY. Our derived RSG mass-loss rates range approximately from 10^-9^M_{sun}_/yr to 10^-5^M_{sun}_/yr, depending mainly on the luminosity. The average mass-loss rate is 9.3x10^-7^M_{sun}_/yr for log(L/L_{sun}_)>4, corresponding to a dust-production rate of ~3.6x10^-9^M_{sun}_/yr. We established a mass-loss rate relation as a function of the luminosity and the effective temperature. Furthermore, we found a turning point in the mass-loss rate versus luminosity relation at approximately log(L/L_{sun}_)=4.4, indicating enhanced rates beyond this limit. We show that this enhancement correlates with photometric variability. We compare our results with prescriptions from the literature, finding an agreement with those assuming steady-state winds. Additionally, we examine the effect of different assumptions on our models and found that radiatively driven winds result in higher mass loss rates by 2-3 orders of magnitude, which are unrealistically high for RSGs. Grain sizes <0.1{mu}m predict higher mass-loss rates by a factor of 25-30 compared to larger grain sizes. Finally, we found 21% of our sample to constitute current binary candidates with a minor effect on our mass-loss relation.2024A&A...686A..88Ahttps://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/cat/J/A+A/686/A88CatalogResearchIsServedByTAP VizieR generic serviceIsServedByConesearch servicerelated-toI/455 : Gaia DR3 (Gaia Collaboration, 2022)II/236 : UBVR CCD survey of the Magellanic clouds (Massey+, 2002)II/246 : 2MASS All-Sky Catalog of Point Sources (Cutri+ 2003)II/288 : IRSF Magellanic Clouds Point Source Catalog (Kato+ 2007)II/297 : AKARI/IRC mid-IR all-sky Survey (ISAS/JAXA, 2010)II/298 : AKARI/FIS All-Sky Survey Point Source CataloguesII/305 : SAGE LMC and SMC IRAC Source Catalog (IPAC 2009)II/312 : GALEX-DR5 (GR5) sources from AIS and MIS (Bianchi+ 2011)II/328 : AllWISE Data Release (Cutri+ 2013)II/351 : VISTA Magellanic Survey (VMC) catalog (Cioni+, 2011)II/335 : GALEX UV sources revised catalog (GUVcat_AIS GR6+7)J/PASA/36/33 : SkyMapper Southern Survey: Second data release (DR2)J/AJ/142/103 : Cool evolved stars in SAGE-SMC and SAGE-LMC (Boyer+, 2011)J/A+A/578/A3 : MC new survey of supergiants (Gonzalez-Fernandez+, 2015)J/A+A/646/A141 : A source catalog for the LMC (Yang+, 2021)J/ApJ/792/30 : NEOWISE magnitudes for near-Earth objects (Mainzer+, 2014)J/A+A/669/A91 : Kinematic analysis of the LMCusing Gaia DR3https://cds.unistra.fr/vizier-org/licences_vizier.htmlhttps://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/686/A88https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/686/A88http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/686/A88https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/686/A88https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/686/A88http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/686/A88GETtext/xml+votablehttps://tapvizier.cds.unistra.fr/TAPVizieR/tapCone search capability for table J/A+A/686/A88/table2 (Catalogue of 2219 RSG candidates)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/686/A88/table2?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/686/A88/table2?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/686/A88/table2?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true77.68114-68.3604970.0055555555555555564/2068 5/8262-8263 8269 8276 8278 8280-8281 6/33043 33045-33047 33072-33073 33075 33084 33087 33108-33110 33116 33118 33128-33129 33132 33136-33138 33140 33792-33793 33800 37507 37514 37536 37538 37545-375467.665958069654821e-21 1.4134638842407062e-18https://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/moc/J/A+A/686/A88?format=asciiUVOpticalInfrareddefaultJ/A+A/686/A88/table2Catalogue of 2219 RSG candidatese_M02V-R? M02 V-R colour errormagstat.errorfloatnullableM02B? M02 B-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.Bdoublenullablee_M02B? M02 B magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableM02U? M02 U-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.Udoublenullablee_GALEXNUV? GALEX NUV magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableb11sageclIR color classification from Boyer et al. (2011. Cat. J/AJ/142/103)meta.code.classcharGaiaProb[0/1]? Probability of being a LMC/MW star from Jimenez-Arranz et al. (2023, Cat. J/A+A/669/A91)stat.fit.goodnessdoublenullablerecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintID[1/2219] Assigned IDmeta.id;meta.mainintRAJ2000Right ascension (J2000)degpos.eq.ra;meta.mainDEJ2000Declination (J2000)degpos.eq.dec;meta.main2MASSJ2MASS J-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.Jdoublee_2MASSJJ-band magnitude errormagstat.errordouble2MASSH2MASS H-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.Hdoublee_2MASSHH-band magnitude errormagstat.errordouble2MASSKs2MASS Ks-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.Kdoublee_2MASSKsKs-band magnitude errormagstat.errordoubleWISE1? WISE1-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.3-4umdoublenullablee_WISE1? WISE1-band magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableWISE2? WISE2-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.4-8umdoublenullablee_WISE2? WISE2-band magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableWISE3? WISE3-band magnitudemagphot.flux.density;em.IR.8-15umdoublenullablee_WISE3? WISE3-band magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableWISE4? WISE4-band magnitudemagphot.flux.density;em.IR.15-30umfloatnullablee_WISE4? WISE4-band magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullablemadW1? WISE1-band MADmagphot.mag;em.IR.3-4umfloatnullablemadW2? WISE2-band MADmagphot.mag;em.IR.4-8umfloatnullableVMCY? VMC Y-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.Jdoublenullablee_VMCY? VMC Y magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableVMCJ? VMC J-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.Jdoublenullablee_VMCJ? VMC J magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableVMCKs? VMC Ks-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.Kdoublenullablee_VMCKs? VMC Ks-band magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableIRSFJ? IRSF J-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.Jdoublenullablee_IRSFJ? IRSF J magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableIRSFH? IRSF H-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.Hdoublenullablee_IRSFH? IRSF H magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableIRSFKs? IRSF Ks-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.Kdoublenullablee_IRSFKs? IRSF Ks magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableAKARIN3? AKARI N3-band magnitudemagphot.flux.density;em.IR.3-4umdoublenullablee_AKARIN3? AKARI N3 magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableAKARIS7? AKARI S7-band magnitudemagphot.flux.density;em.IR.4-8umfloatnullablee_AKARIS7? AKARI S7 magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableAKARIS11? AKARI S11-band magmagphot.flux.density;em.IR.8-15umdoublenullablee_AKARIS11? AKARI S11 magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableL? LuminositysolLumphys.luminositydoublenullableAKARIL15? AKARI L15-band magmagphot.flux.density;em.IR.8-15umfloatnullablee_AKARIL15? AKARI L15 magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableAKARIL24? AKARI L24-band magmagphot.flux.density;em.IR.15-30umfloatnullablee_AKARIL24? AKARI L24 magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullable[3.6]? Spitzer SAGE IRAC1-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.3-4umdoublenullablee_[3.6]? IRAC1-band magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullable[4.5]? Spitzer SAGE IRAC2-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.4-8umdoublenullablee_[4.5]? IRAC2-band magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullable[5.8]? Spitzer SAGE IRAC3-band magnitudemagphot.flux.density;em.IR.4-8umdoublenullablee_[5.8]? IRAC3-band magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullable[8.0]? Spitzer SAGE IRAC4-band magnitudemagphot.flux.density;em.IR.8-15umfloatnullablee_[8.0]? IRAC4-band magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullable[24]? Spitzer SAGE MIPS24- band magnitudemagphot.flux.density;em.IR.15-30umfloatnullablee_[24]? MIPS24-band magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableSkyMapu? SkyMapper u-band magmagphot.mag;em.opt.Udoublenullablee_SkyMapu? SkyMapper u magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableSkyMapv? SkyMapper v-band magmagphot.mag;em.opt.Vfloatnullablee_SkyMapv? SkyMapper v magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableSkyMapg? SkyMapper g-band magmagphot.mag;em.opt.Bdoublenullablee_SkyMapg? SkyMapper g magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableSkyMapr? SkyMapper r-band magmagphot.mag;em.opt.Rdoublenullablee_SkyMapr? SkyMapper r magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableSkyMapi? SkyMapper i-band magmagphot.mag;em.opt.Idoublenullablee_SkyMapi? SkyMapper i magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableSkyMapz? SkyMapper z-band magmagphot.mag;em.opt.Idoublenullablee_SkyMapz? SkyMapper z magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableNSCu? NSC u-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.Udoublenullablee_NSCu? NSC u magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableNSCg? NSC g-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.Bdoublenullablee_NSCg? NSC g magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableNSCr? NSC r-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.Rdoublenullablee_NSCr? NSC r magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableNSCi? NSC i-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.Idoublenullablee_NSCi? NSC i magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableNSCz? NSC z-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.Idoublenullablee_NSCz? NSC z magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableNSCY? NSC Y-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.IR.Jdoublenullablee_NSCY? NSC Y magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableM02V? M02 V-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.Vfloatnullablee_M02V? M02 V magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableM02B-V? M02 B-V colourmagphot.color;em.opt.B;em.opt.Vfloatnullablee_M02B-V? M02 B-V colour errormagstat.errorfloatnullableM02U-B? M02 U-B colourmagphot.color;em.opt.U;em.opt.Bfloatnullablee_M02U-B? M02 U-B colour errormagstat.errorfloatnullableM02V-R? M02 V-R colourmagphot.color;em.opt.V;em.opt.Rfloatnullablee_M02U? M02 U magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableM02R? M02 R-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.Rdoublenullablee_M02R? M02 R magnitude errormagstat.errordoublenullableOGLEV? OGLE V-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.Vfloatnullablee_OGLEV? OGLE V magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableOGLEI? OGLE I-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.Ifloatnullablee_OGLEI? OGLE I magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableGALEXFUV? GALEX FUV-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.UVdoublenullablee_GALEXFUV? GALEX FUV magnitude errormagstat.errorfloatnullableGALEXNUV? GALEX NUV-band magnitudemagphot.mag;em.UVdoublenullableGF2015VarSpectral variability flag from Gonzalez-Fernandez et al. (2015, Cat. J/A+A/578/A3)meta.code.qual;src.varcharGF2015SpTMK spectral type from Gonzalez-Fernandez et al. (2015, Cat. J/A+A/578/A3)src.spTypecharGF2015LCLuminosity class from Gonzalez-Fernandez et al. (2015, Cat. J/A+A/578/A3)src.class.luminositycharJ17irsclMIR spectral classification from Jones et al. (2017, Cat. J/MNRAS/470/3250)meta.code.classcharm03RV? Radial velocity from Massey et al. (2003, Cat. J/AJ/126/2867)km/sphys.veloc;pos.heliocentricdoublenullablem03mkclOptical spectral classification from Massey et al. (2003, Cat. J/AJ/126/2867)meta.code.classcharb09mkclOptical spectral classification from Bonanos et al. (2009, Cat. J/AJ/138/1003)meta.code.classcharn12RV? Radial velocity from Neugent et al. (2012, Cat. J/ApJ/749/177)km/sphys.veloc;pos.heliocentricfloatnullablen12mkclOptical spectral classification from Neugent et al. (2012, Cat. J/ApJ/749/177)meta.code.classcharRVsim? Radial velocity from Simbadkm/sphys.veloc;pos.heliocentricfloatnullablemkclsimSpectral classification from Simbadmeta.code.classcharmntypesimMain object type from Simbadsrc.class;meta.maincharotypessimOther object types from Simbadmeta.code.classcharrank[0/5]? Rank from Yang et al. (2021, J/A+A/646/A141)meta.codeintnullableGaiaDR3? Gaia source_idmeta.idnullableplx? Gaia parallaxmaspos.parallax.trignullablee_plx? Gaia parallax errormasstat.error;pos.parallaxnullableRPlx? Parallax over errorstat.fit.omcdoublenullablepm? Gaia proper motionmas/yrpos.pmdoublenullablepmRA? Gaia RA proper motionmas/yrpos.pm;pos.eq.radoublenullablee_pmRA? Proper RA motion errormas/yrstat.error;pos.pm;pos.eq.rafloatnullablepmDE? Gaia Dec proper motionmas/yrpos.pm;pos.eq.decdoublenullablee_pmDE? Proper Dec motion errormas/yrstat.error;pos.pm;pos.eq.decfloatnullableepsi? Excess noise of sourcemasstat.fit.paramdoublenullablesepsi? Significance of excess noisestat.fit.goodnessdoublenullableIPDgofha? Amplitude of the IPD GoF versus position angle of scanstat.fit.paramdoublenullableRUWE? Renormalised unit weight errorstat.errordoublenullableFG? Gaia G-band mean fluxphot.flux.density;em.optdoublenullablee_FG? Gaia G mean flux errorstat.errordoublenullableGmag? Gaia G-band mean magnitudemagphot.mag;em.optdoublenullableFBP? Gaia BP-band mean fluxphot.flux.density;em.optdoublenullablee_FBP? Gaia BP mean flux errorstat.errordoublenullableBPmag? Gaia BP-band mean magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.BdoublenullableFRP? Gaia RP-band mean fluxphot.flux.density;em.optdoublenullablee_FRP? Gaia RP mean flux errorstat.errordoublenullableRPmag? Gaia RP-band mean magnitudemagphot.mag;em.opt.RdoublenullableRV? Gaia radial velocitykm/sphys.veloc;pos.heliocentricfloatnullablee_RV? Radial velocity errorkm/sstat.errorfloatnullablee_Gmag? Gaia G magnitude errormagstat.error;phot.magdoublenullablee_BPmag? Gaia BP magnitude errormagstat.error;phot.magdoublenullablee_RPmag? Gaia RP magnitude errormagstat.error;phot.magdoublenullableNSS? Gaia flag indicating a non-single starmeta.codecharClassSSAGE classification from Boyer et al. (2011, J/AJ/142/103)meta.code.class;src.classcharAIOgle? Extinction in the OGLE I-bandmagphys.absorptionfloatnullableTeffB19? Effective temperature from J-K prescriptionKphys.temperature.effectivedoublenullablechi2min? Minimum modified chi-squaredstat.fit.chi2;stat.mindoublenullablelogMdot? log mass-loss ratelog(solMass.yr**-1)arith.rate;arith.zpfloatnullablee_logMdot? logMdot lower error limitlog(solMass.yr**-1)stat.errorfloatnullableE_logMdot? logMdot upper error limitlog(solMass.yr**-1)stat.error;stat.maxfloatnullableTDUSTY? Effective temperature from DUSTY best-fit modelKphys.temperature.effectiveintnullablee_TDUSTY? TDUSTY lower error limitKstat.errorintnullableE_TDUSTY? TDUSTY upper error limitKstat.error;stat.maxintnullableTin? Inner shell temperatureKphys.temperatureintnullablee_Tin? Tin lower error limitKstat.errorintnullableE_Tin? Tin upper error limitKstat.error;stat.maxintnullabletau? Optical depth at V-bandphys.absorption.opticalDepthdoublenullablee_tau? tau lower error limitstat.errordoublenullableE_tau? tau lower error limitstat.error;stat.maxdoublenullableBinCandBinary candidate from U-B coloursmeta.codecharwysoYSO classification from Whitney et al. (2008, Cat. J/AJ/136/18)meta.codechar