J/AJ/170/183ivo://CDS.VizieR/J/AJ/170/183CDSHardegree-Ullman K.K.Bergsten G.J.Christiansen J.L.Zink J.K.,Bhure S.Boley K.M.Fernandes R.B.Giacalone S.Karpoor P.R.2026-07-09T12:44:06Z2026-07-09T13:15:47ZCDS support team

CDS, Observatoire de Strasbourg, 11 rue de l'Universite, F-67000 Strasbourg, France

cds-question@unistra.frexoplanetsstellar-massesstellar-radiistellar-distanceeffective-temperaturemetallicityinfrared-photometryvisible-astronomybroad-band-photometryWe uniformly combined data from the NASA Kepler and K2 missions to compute planet occurrence rates across the entire FGK and M-dwarf stellar range. The K2 mission, driven by targets selected by guest observers, monitored nine times more M dwarfs than the Kepler mission. Combined, Kepler and K2 observed 130 short-period (P=1-40days) Earth to Neptune-sized candidate planets orbiting M dwarfs. K2 observed 3.5 times more of these planets than Kepler for host stars below 3700K. Our planet occurrence rates show that short-period sub-Neptunes peak at 3750_-97_^+153^K and drop for cooler M dwarfs. A peak near this location was predicted by pebble accretion planet formation models and confirmed here by observations for the first time. Super-Earths continue to increase in occurrence toward cooler stars and show no clear evidence of a peak in the host star range considered here (3200-6900K). Our observations provide critical input to further refine planet formation models. We strongly recommend further study of mid-to-late M dwarfs with TESS and soon the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope and PLATO to identify additional small planet trends.2025AJ....170..183Hhttps://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/cat/J/AJ/170/183CatalogResearchIsServedByTAP VizieR generic serviceIsServedByConesearch servicerelated-toIV/34 : K2 Ecliptic Plane Input Catalog (EPIC) (Huber+, 2017)V/133 : Kepler Input Catalog (Kepler Mission Team, 2009)I/352 : Distances to 1.47 billion stars in Gaia EDR3 (Bailer-Jones+, 2021)VII/233 : 2MASS All-Sky Extended Source Catalog (XSC) (IPAC/UMass, 2003-2006)J/other/A+ARV/18.67 : Accurate masses and radii of normal stars (Torres+, 2010)J/ApJS/208/9 : Intrinsic colors and temperatures of PMS stars (Pecaut+, 2013)J/ApJ/807/45 : Potentially habitable planets orbit. M dwarfs (Dressing+, 2015)J/ApJ/804/64 : Empirical and model parameters of 183 M dwarfs (Mann+, 2015)J/ApJ/814/130 : Planet occurrence rates calculated for KOIs (Mulders+, 2015)J/ApJS/224/2 : K2 EPIC stellar properties for 138600 targets (Huber+, 2016)J/AJ/154/109 : California-Kepler Surv (CKS). III. Planet radii (Fulton+, 2017)J/ApJ/844/102 : KIC star plx from asteroseismology vs Gaia (Huber+, 2017)J/ApJS/235/38 : Kepler planetary cand. VIII. DR25 reliability (Thompson+, 2018)J/AJ/158/75 : Mid-type M dwarfs planet occur. rates (Hardegree-Ullman+, 2019)J/ApJ/871/63 : How to constrain your M dwarf. II. Nearby binar. (Mann+, 2019)J/AJ/160/108 : Gaia-Kepler stellar properties cat.II. Planets (Berger+, 2020)J/AJ/159/280 : Gaia-Kepler stellar properties cat.I. KIC stars (Berger+, 2020)J/ApJS/247/28 : K2 star parameters from Gaia & LAMOST (Hardegree-Ullman+, 2020)J/AJ/160/19 : 827 ultracool dwarfs with K2 (Sagear+, 2020)J/A+A/641/A170 : Ultracool dwarf K2 light curves (Sestovic+, 2020)J/AJ/159/154 : Exoplanet candidates in Camp. 5 of the K2 mission (Zink+, 2020)J/A+A/653/A98 : asPIC1.1 catalogue (Montalto+, 2021)J/AJ/162/259 : Scaling K2. IV. Camp. 1-8 & 10-18 planets sample (Zink+, 2021)J/AJ/163/179 : The California-Kepler Survey. X. (Petigura+, 2022)J/AJ/165/267 : O2 lvl in Nearby Transiting Exoplanets (Hardegree-Ullman+, 2023)J/AJ/165/265 : Properties of 363 M-dwarfs from TESS (Ment+, 2023)J/AJ/165/262 : Scaling K2. VI. HIRES/isoclassify stellar param. (Zink+, 2023)https://cds.unistra.fr/vizier-org/licences_vizier.htmlhttps://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/AJ/170/183https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/AJ/170/183http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/AJ/170/183https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/AJ/170/183https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/AJ/170/183http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/AJ/170/183GETtext/xml+votablehttps://tapvizier.cds.unistra.fr/TAPVizieR/tapCone search capability for table J/AJ/170/183/table4 (Properties of Kepler Stars)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table4?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table4?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table4?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true291.1375769436.5773550.005555555555555556Cone search capability for table J/AJ/170/183/table5 (Properties of K2 Stars)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table5?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table5?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table5?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true176.79937889-5.943896940.005555555555555556Cone search capability for table J/AJ/170/183/table6 (Kepler Super-Earth and Sub-Neptune Exoplanet Parameters)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table6?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table6?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table6?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true291.254464736.74358140.005555555555555556Cone search capability for table J/AJ/170/183/table7 (K2 Super-Earth and Sub-Neptune Exoplanet Parameters)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table7?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table7?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/AJ/170/183/table7?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true176.6657111-5.17190860.0055555555555555563/73 4/17 19 22 25 28-29 64 267 270-271 282 289 304 922-923 933-935 944-946 1082 1126-1127 1133 1144 1146 1152 1154 1160-1161 1164 1168-1169 1171 1512 1514-1515 1591 1597 1599 1603 1606 1609 1612-1613 1615 1640-1641 1686-1687 1692-1693 1712 1715-1716 1718 1730 1809 1812-1814 1826 1920 2770 2772-2773 2776-2777 2779-2780 3003 5/67 73 75 82 85 92 94-95 120 260-262 264 266 268 272 1063 1067 1073-1075 1077-1079 1120 1122-1123 1132 1134 1155 1164-1165 1167 1200 1204 1220 1222 1224-1226 3645-3647 3683 3704 3706 3729-3731 3760 3765 3788-3789 3792-3793 4287 4322-4323 4326-4327 4332 4334 4345 4347 4499 4502-4503 4528-4529 4531 4537 4540-4541 4543 4546 4556 4582-4583 4588 4590 4612-4614 4620 4622-4624 4627 4629 4631 4634 4652-4654 4660 4664-4665 4680-4681 4683 4688 4690 4696 4698-4699 4708-4709 5870-5871 5877 5879 5882-5885 5887 6026-6028 6030 6042 6054-6055 6064 6072 6074 6356 6358 6361 6363 6387 6394 6401-6404 6406-6407 6409 6411 6418-6419 6422-6423 6428 6430-6431 6433 6474 6498 6528-6529 6537-6539 6542 6544 6548 6568-6570 6572-6574 6576 6725 6727 6733 6735-6736 6738-6739 6742-6743 6757 6761 6763-6764 6766 6776-6778 6780 6852 6854-6855 6857 6859 6870 6876-6878 6884-6885 6887 6896-6897 6900 6914-6915 6926 6944-6946 6952 7209-7210 7212 7224 7233 7235 7244-7245 7260-7262 7296 7298 7302-7303 7309-7312 7314 7320 7323 7329 7332-7333 7335-7338 7344 7424 10715 10717 10719 10727 10733 10735-10738 10741 10744 10746 10749-10751 11039 11061 11063 11069 11075-11077 11079 11087 11096-11098 11101 11112-11113 11115 11128-11130 11182 11192 11194 12006-12007 12016-12017 12022-12024 12026-12027 12030 12125 12127 6/260-261 263 266-267 289 291 320 322-323 334-337 339 344 346-349 351 373-375 388-389 391 397 399 437 439 484-486 496 1052-1053 1055 1061 1063 1077 1092 1094-1098 1100-1101 4207 4223 4245-4247 4250-4251 4261-4263 4265 4290-4291 4304 4306-4307 4486 4506 4534 4540 4613 4615 4645 4665 4756-4757 4759 4804-4805 4820 4886 4892 4908 4910 4912 4992-4993 14559 14567 14573 14575 14577-14579 14730-14731 14738 14744 14746-14747 14749-14751 14792 14794-14795 14822 14828 14830-14831 14914-14915 15044-15045 15056-15057 15059 15160-15161 15164 15176-15178 15200 15202 15232-15233 17071 17082-17083 17086-17087 17117 17130 17139 17142-17143 17145 17147 17299 17302-17303 17332-17334 17340 17342 17346 17352 17354 17376-17377 17379 17385 17392 17394 17400 17402 17973 17975 17981 17987 17990-17991 18002-18003 18006-18007 18120-18121 18123 18145 18147 18168-18169 18171 18177-18180 18182 18188 18190-18191 18202-18203 18206 18208 18210 18213 18216 18218-18219 18222-18223 18228 18230 18232-18234 18236 18320 18322 18327 18356-18357 18366 18378 18400 18460-18462 18484 18486 18504 18513 18520 18522 18530-18534 18540 18542 18544 18548-18549 18551 18557 18592-18593 18596-18597 18599 18605 18607 18620-18621 18646 18648-18650 18652 18664-18665 18668-18669 18674 18680 18728-18729 18758 18764 18766 18788 18790-18791 18820-18821 18823 18880-18882 18884-18885 19537 19540-19541 19712-19713 19716-19717 19728 23419 23422-23423 23470-23471 23479 23505 23514-23515 23522-23523 23526 23545-23547 24103 24124 24127 24174 24208 24210 24213 24260 24264 24266 24300 24927 25083 25421-25423 25428 25430-25431 25436 25438 25441 25443 25448-25449 25451 25533-25535 25541-25543 25545 25570-25571 25573 25580-25582 25601-25603 25622 25632-25633 25635 25641-25643 25665-25667 25670-25671 25681-25684 25686-25687 25716 25718-25719 25728-25729 25741 25771 25774 25780-25781 25783 25791 25824-25826 25828-25829 25832 25834-25835 25839 25864 25890 25984 25986 25996 25998 26016-26018 26024 26121 26124 26126 26133 26145-26147 26160 26162-26163 26172 26174-26175 26180-26181 26196 26198 26218 26284-26286 26300 26302 26310 26312-26314 26336 26905-26907 26928-26929 26931 26939 26948 26950 26961 26963-26964 26966 27023 27025 27034 27037 27039 27049-27051 27060-27061 27063 27118 27124-27125 27128 27223 27229 27412 27414-27415 27425-27427 27432-27433 27435 27474 27486-27487 27516-27518 27524-27525 27527 27545 27592-27594 27596-27597 27599 27604 27608-27610 27648-27649 27651-27652 27654-27655 27665 27672 27674 27698 27788-27790 27792 27812 28192 28194 28825-28827 28830 28835 28844 28847 28852 28855 28875 28900 28902 28906 28929 28931 28965 28984-28985 28988 29052-29053 29120-29121 29124 29188-29189 29191 29196 29198 29200 29202-29203 29206-29207 29232-29234 29260 29262-29263 29285-29288 29290-29291 29298 29304 29306-29307 29312 29314-29315 29321 29324 29326-29327 29337 29357-29358 29360 29362-29363 29380-29381 29384-29385 29702 29704 29706 29728 29730 30736 30738 30744 30752-30754 42493-42495 42833 42836-42837 42839 42845-42847 42859 42864-42865 42867 42874 42902-42903 42905-42907 42928-42929 42931 42937-42939 42956 42958-42961 42974-42975 42980-42982 42990-42991 42993-42995 44149-44151 44153 44155 44251 44273 44294-44295 44297 44299 44312-44314 44338 44341 44343-44344 44346-44347 44396 44400-44401 44403 44412-44414 44456-44457 44459 44504 44506-44507 44524-44526 44528-44530 44532 44711 44717-44720 44722-44723 44726-44727 44732-44734 44774 44780-44782 44804-44805 44807 44816-44818 44820-44821 44823 44864-44866 47982 48014-48015 48022-48023 48036-48037 48039 48043 48045-48047 48072-48074 48076-48077 48083 48086 48102 48113-48116 48127 48478-48479 48497 48596-48597 48599 48605 48607 48629 48810-48811https://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/moc/J/AJ/170/183?format=asciiOpticalInfrareddefaultJ/AJ/170/183/table4Properties of Kepler StarsrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintNEALink to NASA Exoplanet Archive for this starmeta.ref.urlcharKIC[757450/12984422] Kepler (V/133) IDmeta.id;meta.mainintprimaryGaiaDR3Gaia DR3 (I/355) source IDmeta.id2MASS2MASS (II/249) designation (JHHMMSSss+DDMMSSs)meta.idcharRAJ2000Right ascension (J2000)degpos.eq.ra;meta.mainindexedSimbadNameSimbad column added by the CDSmeta.idcharnullablee_RAJ2000Uncertainty in RAdegmasstat.error;pos.eq.radoubleDEJ2000Declination (J2000)degpos.eq.dec;meta.mainindexede_DEJ2000Uncertainty in DEdegmasstat.error;pos.eq.decdoubleDist[19.21/8123] Distance from Bailer-Jones+2021 (I/352)pcpos.distancedoublee_Dist[6.83e-3/1234.1] Lower uncertainty on Distpcstat.error;stat.min;pos.distancedoubleE_Dist[6.31e-3/1941.2] Upper uncertainty on Distpcstat.error;stat.max;pos.distancedoubleTeff[3090/7298] Surface effective temperatureKphys.temperature.effectiveinte_Teff[90/311] Uncertainty in TeffKstat.error;phys.temperature.effectiveintlogg[3.56/5.37] Log, surface gravitylog(cm.s**-1)phys.gravityfloate_logg[0.021/0.853] Uncertainty in logglog(cm.s**-1)stat.error;phys.gravityfloat[Fe/H][-1.8/0.53] Metallicityphys.abund.Fefloate_[Fe/H][0.217] Uncertainty in [Fe/H]stat.error;phys.abund.FefloatLstar[2.17e-3/43.63] Stellar luminositysolLumphys.luminositydoublee_Lstar[1.11e-4/9.53] Uncertainty in LstarsolLumstat.error;phys.luminositydoubleRstar[0.16/4.19] Stellar radiussolRadphys.size.radiusfloate_Rstar[5e-3/0.982] Uncertainty in RstarsolRadstat.error;phys.size.radiusfloatMstar[0.13/7.1] Stellar masssolMassphys.massfloate_Mstar[5e-3/3.72] Uncertainty in MstarsolMassstat.error;phys.massfloatNpNumber of exoplanets for this star (link to Table 6)meta.numberintnullableJ/AJ/170/183/table5Properties of K2 Starse_logg[0.021/1.02] Uncertainty in logglog(cm.s**-1)stat.error;phys.gravityfloat[Fe/H][-1.99/0.54] Metallicityphys.abund.FefloatSimbadNameSimbad column added by the CDSmeta.idcharnullablerecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintNEALink to NASA Exoplanet Archive for this starmeta.ref.urlcharEPIC[201048855/251634367] EPIC (IV/34) K2 identifiermeta.id;meta.mainlongprimaryCamp[1/18] K2 Campaign (1)meta.id;obsintGaiaDR3Gaia DR3 (I/355) source IDmeta.id2MASS2MASS (II/246) designation (JHHMMSSss+DDMMSSs)meta.idcharCompBinary component, A or Bmeta.id.part;meta.maincharRAJ2000Right ascension (J2000)degpos.eq.ra;meta.mainindexede_RAJ2000Uncertainty in RAdegmasstat.error;pos.eq.radoubleDEJ2000Declination (J2000)degpos.eq.dec;meta.mainindexede_DEJ2000Uncertainty in DEdegmasstat.error;pos.eq.decdoubleDist[20.41/11377] Distance from Bailer-Jones+2021 (I/352)pcpos.distancedoublee_Dist[0.01/6354] Lower uncertainty on Distpcstat.error;stat.min;pos.distancedoubleE_Dist[0.01/4058] Upper uncertainty on Distpcstat.error;stat.max;pos.distancedoubleTeff[2992/7299] Surface effective temperatureKphys.temperature.effectiveinte_Teff[88/356] Uncertainty in TeffKstat.error;phys.temperature.effectiveintlogg[3.57/5.44] Log, surface gravitylog(cm.s**-1)phys.gravityfloate_[Fe/H][0.217] Uncertainty in [Fe/H]stat.error;phys.abund.FefloatLstar[1.27e-3/42.87] Stellar luminositysolLumphys.luminositydoublee_Lstar[4.6e-5/31.67] Uncertainty in LstarsolLumstat.error;phys.luminositydoubleRstar[0.13/4.22] Stellar radiussolRadphys.size.radiusfloate_Rstar[4e-3/3.86] Uncertainty in RstarsolRadstat.error;phys.size.radiusfloatMstar[0.018/7.39] Stellar masssolMassphys.massfloate_Mstar[3e-3/3.41] Uncertainty in MstarsolMassstat.error;phys.massfloatNpNumber of exoplanets for this star (link to Table 7)meta.numberintnullableJ/AJ/170/183/table6Kepler Super-Earth and Sub-Neptune Exoplanet ParametersKIC[1026957/12834874] Kepler (V/133) IDmeta.id.parentintrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintNEALink to NASA Exoplanet Archive for this planetmeta.ref.urlcharKOI[49.01/8082.01] Kepler Object of Interestmeta.id;meta.mainfloatRp[1/3.99] Planet Radius(6.3781x10+6m)phys.size.radiusfloate_Rp[0.056/2.48] Uncertainty in Rp(6.3781x10+6m)stat.error;phys.size.radiusfloatPer[1/39.79] Planetary orbital perioddtime.periodfloate_Per[0.015/2.12] Uncertainty in Perdstat.error;time.periodfloatSp[2.22/7791.52] Incident Flux, Earth units (Sgeo)Earthphot.flux.densitydoublee_Sp[0.12/810.19] Uncertainty in SpEarthstat.error;phot.flux.densityfloatSimbadLink to Simbad for this planetmeta.ref.urlchar_RAPlanet position from Simbad (right ascension part)degpos.eq.ra;meta.main_DEPlanet position from Simbad (declination part)degpos.eq.dec;meta.mainJ/AJ/170/183/table7K2 Super-Earth and Sub-Neptune Exoplanet ParametersEPIC[201155177/251584580] EPIC (IV/34) K2 identifiermeta.id.parentlongrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintNEALink to NASA Exoplanet Archive for this planetmeta.ref.urlcharCamp[1/18] K2 Campaign (1)meta.id;obsintCandK2 planet candidate identifiermeta.id;meta.maindoubleRp[1.07/3.95] Planet Radius(6.3781x10+6m)phys.size.radiusfloate_Rp[0.065/16.84] Uncertainty in Rp(6.3781x10+6m)stat.error;phys.size.radiusfloatPer[1.13/35.95] Planetary orbital perioddtime.perioddoublee_Per[3.4e-5/8.5e-3] Uncertainty in Perdstat.error;time.perioddoubleSp[1.47/3019.44] Incident Flux, Earth units (Sgeo)Earthphot.flux.densitydoublee_Sp[0.049/668.71] Uncertainty in SpEarthstat.error;phot.flux.densityfloatSimbadLink to Simbad for this starmeta.ref.urlchar_RAStar position from Simbad (right ascension part)degpos.eq.ra;meta.main_DEStar position from Simbad (declination part)degpos.eq.dec;meta.main