J/A+A/702/A148ivo://CDS.VizieR/J/A+A/702/A148doi:10.26093/cds/vizier/bc-ny/lbeiCDSMonti L.Muraveva T.Garofalo A.Clementini G.Valentini M.L.2026-08-03T06:57:52Z2025-10-16T07:51:27ZCDS support team

CDS, Observatoire de Strasbourg, 11 rue de l'Universite, F-67000 Strasbourg, France

cds-question@unistra.frvariable-starsmetallicityvisible-astronomyRR Lyrae stars (RRLs) are old population pulsating variables that serve as useful metallicity tracers due to the correlation between their metal abundances and the shape of their light curves. With the advent of ESA's Gaia mission Data Release 3 (DR3), which provides light curves for approximately 270000 RRLs, it has become crucial to develop a machine learning technique that allows for the estimation of metallicities for large samples of RRLs directly from their light curves. This work extends our previous methodological paper on RRab stars by developing and validating a unified Deep Learning (DL) framework capable of accurately estimating metallicities for both fundamental mode (RRab) and first-overtone (RRc) pulsators using their Gaia DR3 G-band light curves. Our goal is to create a single, consistent model to produce a large, homogeneous metallicity catalogue. We employed a Gated Recurrent Units (GRUs)-based neural network architecture optimised for time-series extrinsic regression. The framework incorporates a rigorous preprocessing pipeline (including phase folding, smoothing, and sample weighting) and is trained using Gaia DR3 G-band light curves and photometric metallicities of RRLs, available in the literature. The model architecture and training implicitly handle the morphological differences between RRab and RRc light curves. Our unified GRU model achieves high predictive accuracy. It successfully confirms the high precision for RRab stars reported in our previous work (RMSE=0.0765dex, R2=0.9401) and, crucially, demonstrates even stronger performance for the more challenging RRc stars (RMSE=0.0720dex, R2=0.9625). This represents a significant improvement over previous DL benchmarks. We also present a key finding: a clear positive correlation between the number of photometric data points in a light curve and the precision of the final metallicity estimate, quantifying the value of well-sampled observations. Crucially, we demonstrate that prediction accuracy scales with the number of photometric epochs, establishing that this framework is poised to deliver unprecedented precision with richer future datasets. The enhanced light curves from Gaia DR4 and the Vera C. Rubin Observatory will enable this methodology to produce metallicity catalogues of unprecedented scale and fidelity, paving the way for next-generation studies in Galactic archaeology and chemo-dynamics.2025A&A...702A.148Mhttps://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/cat/J/A+A/702/A148CatalogResearchIsServedByTAP VizieR generic serviceIsServedByConesearch servicerelated-toI/355 : Gaia DR3 Part 1. Main source (Gaia Collaboration, 2022)J/A+A/674/A18 : Gaia DR3. The RR Lyrae sample (Clementini+, 2023)https://cds.unistra.fr/vizier-org/licences_vizier.htmlhttps://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/702/A148https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/702/A148http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/702/A148https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/702/A148https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/702/A148http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/702/A148GETtext/xml+votablehttps://tapvizier.cds.unistra.fr/TAPVizieR/tapCone search capability for table J/A+A/702/A148/tablea1 (Parameters of 6002 RRab stars and 6613 RRc stars from the Gaia DR3 catalogue)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/702/A148/tablea1?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/702/A148/tablea1?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/702/A148/tablea1?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true256.3174364-33.76259190.0055555555555555564/2012 2575 2585 2854 2856 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31871-31874 31876-31877 31879 31888-31889 31891 31901 31912-31914 31916 31918-31919 31930 31936-31937 31939 31947-31948 31952-31954 31956 31958-31959 31961 31965-31967 31988 31990 31995 31998-31999 32002 32021 32023 32028-32029 32057-32059 32061-32066 32070-32074 32076-32078 32083 32086 32088 32095-32096 32098-32099 32104 32106-32108 32110-32111 32113-32116 32118-32119 32133-32134 32136 32138-32141 32143 32149-32151 32162 32169-32174 32180 32182-32183 32208-32210 32228 32232-32233 32235 32240-32242 32244 32246-32250 32256-32257 32259 32264 32267 32269-32273 32275 32277-32278 32282 32286 32288-32289 32291-32292 32294 32297 32299-32300 32302-32303 32305 32308-32309 32312 32314-32315 32321-32322 32325 32328-32329 32331-32333 32341 32343 32345-32349 32351 32353-32354 32357 32359 32363-32365 32367 32375 32378-32379 32381-32384 32386-32387 32389 32391 32394 32401-32404 32407 32412-32413 32418-32421 32423 32425 32431 32433 32435 32440 32442-32443 32445 32447-32450 32452 32454-32455 32458 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33760-33761 33764 33766 33768 33792 34073 34146 34242 34419 34421 34423 34426 34442 34474 34491 34495-34496 34515 34518 34523 34537 34540 34547 34557-34558 34613-34614 34644 34653 34656 34666 34671 34685 34687 34690 34696 34703-34704 34713 34725 34730 34735-34736 34740 34742 34745 34749 34751 34759 34772 34774 34783 34786 34793 34796 34799 34802 34814 34822 34824 34826 34831 34840 34847 34854-34855 34861-34862 34867 34870 34878 34895 34904 34906 34911 34915 34920 34931 34938-34939 34944 34946 34953 34955 34958 34963 34966 34972 34976 34978 34985 34993 35001-35003 35007 35010-35012 35018 35020 35022 35027-35028 35031-35033 35043 35055-35057 35059 35062-35063 35071-35072 35076 35081 35083 35105 35117 35119 35121 35130-35131 35137 35159 35166 35168 35175 35178 35183 35185-35186 35191 35199-35200 35203 35208 35216 35218-35219 35226 35229-35230 35236-35237 35243 35247 35261-35262 35264 35266 35273 35286 35288-35289 35292 35301 35304 35309 35315 35318 35331 35333 35335 35337 35339 35343 35345 35347-35348 35353 35367 35372 35386 35388-35389 35394-35395 35398 35407 35409 35412 35419 35423 35426 35431 35438 35444 35446 35449 35451-35453 35495 35497 35538 35540 35549 35551 35597 35601 35603 35610-35611 35615-35616 35619 35623 35625 35632 35634-35635 35645 35653 35657 35663 35672 35683 35689 35700 35705-35706 35717 35727 35729 35749 35761 35763 35766 35768 35785 35792-35793 35805 35815-35816 35821 35832-35834 35840 35845 35847-35848 35856 35861 35864 35868-35869 35875 35878 35882 35890 35898 35907 35919 35921 35933 35939 35942-35944 35948 35952 35971-35972 35974 35984 35990 35995 35998 36014 36016 36038 36055 36057-36058 36061 36068 36097-36098 36107-36109 36111-36112 36115 36118 36121 36123 36128 36137 36148 36154 36157-36158 36160 36167-36168 36172 36176 36178 36188 36190 36196 36200 36289 36337 36340 36352 36392 36422 36431 36483 36490 36511 36522 36531 36539 36613 36883 36913 37138 37151 37186 37190-37191 37208 37356 37466-37467 37471 37475 37478-37479 37481 37483-37485 37492-37494 37496-37497 37501-37502 37519 37522-37523 37532 37534-37535 37539 37548-37549 37552-37554 37556-37557 37570 37573-37575 37581 37584 37587-37588 37590-37593 37596 37599 37639 37644 37647-37648 37653 37655-37656 37664 37666-37670 37673 37675-37676 37679-37680 37685-37689 37691 37693 37695 37697-37698 37703 37706 37728 37731 37736-37737 37739-37740 37751 37758 37761-37762 37766 37768 37781 37788 37826-37827 37879 37890 37906 37908 37911 37913 37916-37918 37923 37937 37939 37944 37947 37950 37952 37954 37957-37958 37961 37963-37965 37967 37970-37972 37977-37978 37982-37986 37988 37990 38001-38002 38005-38006 38008 38031 38044-38045 38053 38059-38060 38062-38066 38069 38073-38076 38080-38081 38083-38085 38087 38090 38095 38098-38099 38102-38103 38107 38116-38118 38120-38122 38124-38125 38138-38139 38144-38145 38147-38149 38156-38158 38160-38162 38164 38166 38174-38177 38185-38186 38192-38194 38204 38208 38210-38211 38214 38217-38219 38225 38230 38236-38238 38242-38243 38246-38247 38253-38254 38256-38258 38262 38269-38270 38273-38278 38286-38288 38290-38294 38299-38300 38304 38306 38309 38311 38314 38316-38318 38320-38322 38326-38327 38330 38333-38336 38344 38346 38348 38350-38351 38356-38358 38365 38367-38368 38370-38372 38374-38377 38384-38386 38388-38389 38400 38409 38413 38416 38419 38421-38422 38424 38426 38429 38431 38435 38438 38446-38449 38451-38452 38454 38457 38459 38461-38462 38470 38472 38474 38477-38478 38488 38490 38500-38502 38504 38506 38509-38511 38516 38518-38521 38523-38526 38531 38533 38544-38546 38548 38550-38553 38557 38565 38572 38574 38578 38581-38583 38589-38591 38593 38595-38596 38599-38601 38603-38605 38612 38615-38618 38621-38622 38625 38627 38638-38639 38641 38644 38646 38649-38650 38652 38656-38657 38659 38664-38666 38669 38674 38676 38680 38682 38693-38696 38712 38714 38718 38725 38736 38741-38743 38747-38748 38750 38752 38754-38756 38762 38764 38766 38769-38770 38773 38776 38781 38789 38791 38794 38798-38799 38804-38805 38808-38809 38824 38845 38912 39253 39292 39377 39392 39397 39401 39405 39407 39415 39422 39580 39679 39702 39751 39757 39762 39766-39767 39771-39773 39776-39777 39780 39788 39793-39794 39798 39807 39816 39819 39823 39835 39838-39839 39846-39847 39853 39855-39856 39865 39868-39869 39871 39874 39880 39883 39885-39886 39888 39891 39895 39898-39902 39904 39910 39912 39918-39921 39925-39926 39936-39937 39939 39946 39951-39952 39954 39957 39959 39966-39967 39969 39974-39976 39978-39979 39982 39985 39987 39989-39991 39993 39997 39999 40001-40002 40004 40008 40010-40012 40014-40017 40020 40022-40023 40025 40029-40031 40033-40034 40036 40038 40041-40044 40047 40051-40052 40058 40060 40069 40072-40073 40075-40077 40080 40082-40083 40091 40096-40097 40106 40108-40109 40112 40115 40118 40120-40121 40123-40124 40128 40131 40137 40140 40143 40152 40161 40165 40167 40175 40185 40194 40200 40202-40203 40213 40225 40227 40230 40236 40238 40325 40327 40329 40333 40336 40345 40347 40370 40377 40425 40430 40448-40449 40451 40453 40456 40460 40462-40463 40465 40467-40468 40472 40475-40476 40483 40486 40489 40491-40492 40494 40496-40497 40499 40502 40504 40506 40509-40510 40518 40528 40531 40534 40544 40547 40549 40552-40553 40556-40557 40561 40564-40565 40580-40581 40592-40593 40597 40604-40605 40621 40626 40634-40635 40638-40639 40642-40643 40651 40676 40684 40686 40724 40738 40742 40745 40748-40750 40756 40760 40767 40778 40803 40811 40837 40839 40850 40860 40863 40914-40915 40928 40947 40973 40987 41010-41011 41016 41021-41023 41027 41029 41031 41038 41042-41044 41046-41048 41050-41051 41055 41067 41072-41073 41076 41078-41079 41081 41094 41100 41103 41107-41108 41111 41118 41140 41142 41144-41145 41147 41150-41153 41156-41157 41159-41160 41162-41166 41168-41169 41171 41178-41179 41185-41186 41188-41190 41194-41198 41223-41224 41229 41231-41232 41234-41237 41239 41242-41243 41248 41250-41252 41254 41257-41259 41265 41267 41289-41292 41294-41295 41301-41302 41304-41306 41320-41321 41323 41328 41330-41334 41340-41341 41344-41346 41352-41353 41355 41380-41381 41383 41400 41402 41405-41406 41420-41422 41428-41429 41436 41438-41441 41443 41445-41448 41464-41465 41467-41470 41474 41478 41485 41489 41491-41494 41498-41499 41503-41504 41509-41510 41513-41514 41518 41524-41526 41530 41533-41534 41539 41541-41543 41552 41554 41562-41564 41566-41569 41571 41585-41587 41592 41601 41606 41610 41612-41613 41615-41618 41620 41622-41623 41625 41629 41634-41635 41639 41641 41643 41645 41648-41650 41656 41665-41668 41670 41679 41690 41696 41699 41702-41704 41707 41716 41718-41722 41724-41725 41727 41732-41733 41735 41741-41743 41747-41749 41751 41753 41755-41756 41760-41762 41774 41791 41793 41796-41797 41808 41848 41850-41853 41865-41867 41880 41882 41884-41886 41889-41891 41896 41898 41904 41921-41926 41929-41930 41932-41933 41936 41944 41948-41949 41982 41984 41986 42009-42011 42017-42019 42021-42024 42026-42027 42032-42034 42040 42042 42056 42058-42059 42062 42088 42090-42093 42104-42105 42112-42113 42122 42132 42136 42141 42143 42150 42152-42153 42156 42168 42180 42184-42185 42188 42190-42191 42217 42219 42232-42233 42235 42237 42245 42247 42254-42256 42258 42265-42268 42270-42273 42276-42277 42280 42282-42283 42286-42289 42292 42314-42315 42318-42319 42330-42331 42345 42353 42365 42368-42369 42372-42373 42384 42406 42411-42412 42414-42415 42426-42427 42443 42465 42467 42480 42482-42483 42488-42490 42518-42519 42521 42530-42531 42544-42545 42548-42549 42578-42579 42584 42589 42591 42593 42596-42598 42613-42615 42617 42619 42626 42630 42633 42636-42637 42648-42649 42652-42653 42678 42701-42703 42708 42711 42713-42714 42717-42718 42722 42724-42726 42748-42749 42757-42759 42772 42774-42775 42780-42781 42783 42786 42828-42829 42838 42844 42846-42847 42849 42852 42854-42855 42861 42879 42890-42891 42898-42899 42906 42908 42911-42912 42914-42915 42920-42921 42923-42924 42934 42936-42937 42940 42942-42943 42955 42958 42961 42964 42966-42967 42973 42977 42980 42986-42987 42990 42994 43004-43005 43023 43030-43031 43037-43039 43041 43047 43051-43053 43055-43056 43058-43059 43061-43063 43072-43074 43084-43086 43088-43090 43097-43098 43117 43119 43128 43130 43135-43137 43140 43142-43143 43149-43152 43154-43157 43159-43160 43163-43164 43166-43170 43174-43176 43178-43180 43182 43184-43186 43189 43191 43197-43198 43200 43202 43204-43205 43207 43211-43213 43215-43216 43218 43232-43234 43237 43245 43247 43302 43334 43520 43523-43526 43528 43530-43534 43536-43537 43539 43544-43546 43552-43553 43555-43557 43561-43562 43565 43568 43570-43571 43576 43578 43628 43631 43652 43654-43655 43657 43661-43663 43666 43672 43674 43680-43681 43683 43686 43689 43691-43693 43695-43696 43698-43699 43702 43705-43706 43709-43711 43737 43739 43754 43758 43764 43766-43767 43771 43773-43774 43944 44289 44292 44309 44312 44315 44356-44357 44360-44361 44363 44366 44368 44371 44374 44381 44391-44392 44402 44408-44409 44414 44501 44529 44535 44538 45087 45090 45099 45102 45115 45118 45164-45166 45176 45181 45185 45187 45190-45191 45194 45196 45199 45206 45208-45209 45213 45215 45218-45219 45222 45224-45225 45228 45230 45233-45235 45237 45241 45243 45245-45246 45252 45256 45259 45265-45266 45268 45273-45274 45276-45277 45280-45281 45283-45284 45287-45288 45291-45292 45294 45296 45298 45302 45305 45307-45308 45310-45311 45323 45337 45343 45346-45347 45356 45358 45360 45362-45363 45367-45369 45386-45387 45389 45399 45401 45407 45409 45411 45413-45414 45418-45419 45421-45423 45432 45436-45437 45439-45440 45442 45446 45448-45449 45451 45453-45455 45458-45459 45462 45466-45467 45481 45488-45489 45491 45495 45499-45501 45503 45505 45509 45511 45514-45515 45517-45519 45521-45522 45524-45525 45528 45531 45533-45535 45541 45544-45546 45551 45553 45557 45560 45563 45565 45568-45570 45573 45575-45577 45579 45581 45583-45586 45600 45602-45603 45605-45607 45610-45614 45624 45626-45630 45642-45643 45645-45648 45660-45662 45680-45682 45684-45686 45692-45694 45712-45713 45716-45717 45719 45724 45726 45728-45730 45733-45735 45748 45750 45752 45754-45755 45758-45759 45773-45774 45777-45779 45782 45806 45821 45824-45826 45833-45836 45839-45840 45842 45846 45850 45852-45854 45857 45859-45860 45863 45866-45869 45871-45874 45879-45881 45886 45892 45900 45912-45913 45916-45917 45949 45955 45957 45972 45975 45980-45981 45983 46016 46018 46022 46024-46026 46029 46040-46041 46046 46049 46051 46054 46061 46063 46084 46086-46089 46091 46096 46098-46100 46104 46115 46117 46120-46121 46125-46126 46130-46131 46133-46134 46139 46143 46148-46149 46151-46152 46160-46161 46164 46166-46167 46170 46173-46174 46177-46178 46182 46184-46185 46189 46191-46192 46197 46199-46200 46209-46211 46213 46217-46218 46221 46224 46230-46231 46238 46243 46246 46255 46258 46264-46265 46267-46268 46270 46273 46280-46281 46315 46321 46325 46332 46337 46342 46345 46347-46348 46351 46355 46358 46366 46370-46372 46374-46375 46377 46381 46384 46387 46394 46400 46452 46466 46469 46477 46480 46497 46504 46510 46592 46595 46597 46600-46601 46606 46609 46612 46618 46620 46625 46640-46641 46643 46647-46648 46652-46653 46661 46667 46670 46675 46677 46680 46682-46683 46686 46694 46696-46698 46700-46701 46708 46714-46715 46718 46727-46728 46733-46734 46736-46737 46739 46744-46745 46747 46757 46768-46769 46771 46776 46780 46782 46784 46788-46789 46798-46799 46801 46804 46811 46819 46821 46823-46824 46827 46830 46832-46834 46838-46841 46843-46844 46846-46847 46852 46859 46883 46889 46891-46892 46900 46979-46980 46990 47000 47012-47013 47015 47018-47020 47023 47032 47108 47110 47116 47120 47132 47144 47146-47147 47150 47162 47172-47173 47184-47185 47187-47188 47190 47207 47236-47237 47239 47245 47248-47249 47261 47273 47305 47307 47441 47446 47449 47452 47454 47456 47462 47479 47481 47486 47616 47618 47800 47877 47972 48147 48156 48158-48159 48168 48171 48179 48183 48190 48192 48194 48209 48211 48213-48215 48220 48222 48234 48257 48260 48262-48263 48271 48277-48281 48283 48285 48304-48305 48320-48322 48328 48330 48332 48352 48357 48367 48370 48376-48377 48379 48382 48389 48392 48394-48395 48400 48402-48403 48408-48409 48411 48416-48417 48419-48420 48424 48426 48429 48431-48432 48434 48440 48443 48445 48515 48517 48521 48526 48528-48529 48531 48537 48542 48548 48550 48556-48557 48559 48566 48570 48578-48579 48611 48617 48621-48622 48636 48638 48707-48708 48713 48716 48720 48722 48725 48728 48733-48734 48742 48753 48758-48759 48783 48819 48848 48857-48859 48881 48886 48892-48893 48895 48898 48904 48910 48916 48918-48920 48922 48925 48929 48932 48934-48935 48942 48947 48952 48954-48955 48965 48967 48980-48981 48984-48985 48995 49003 49015 49021 49025 49031 49037 49039 49046-49048 49050 49053 49055 49072-49073 49076-49078 49085 49087 49094 49096-49098 49102 49120-49122 49124-49125 49127 49129-49133 49136 49139 49150-49151https://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/moc/J/A+A/702/A148?format=asciiOpticaldefaultJ/A+A/702/A148/tablea1Parameters of 6002 RRab stars and 6613 RRc stars from the Gaia DR3 cataloguerecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintRRtype[RRab RRc] RR Lyrae typemeta.notecharGaiaDR3Gaia DR3 source_idmeta.id;meta.mainPerPerioddtime.perioddoubleAmpGAmplitude in G bandmagsrc.var.amplitudedoubleNepochsNumber of epochsmeta.numberint[Fe/H]Photometric metallicityphys.abund.Zdoublee_[Fe/H]Uncertainty in [Fe/H]stat.error;phys.abund.FedoubleSimbadSimbad column added by the CDSmeta.ref.urlchar_RARight Ascension (J2000) from SIMBAD (not part of the original data)degpos.eq.ra;meta.mainindexed_DEDeclination (J2000) from SIMBAD (not part of the original data)degpos.eq.dec;meta.mainindexed