J/A+A/646/A104ivo://CDS.VizieR/J/A+A/646/A104doi:10.26093/cds/vizier.36460104CDSHunt E.L.Reffert S.2022-12-31T09:42:07Z2021-02-16T07:31:19ZCDS support team

CDS, Observatoire de Strasbourg, 11 rue de l'Universite, F-67000 Strasbourg, France

cds-question@unistra.frmilky-way-galaxysurveysastrometryopen-star-clustersThe census of open clusters in the Milky Way is in a never-before seen state of flux. Recent works have reported hundreds of new open clusters thanks to the incredible astrometric quality of the Gaia satellite, but other works have also reported that many open clusters discovered in the pre Gaia era may be associations. We aim to conduct a comparison of clustering algorithms used to detect open clusters, attempting to statistically quantify their strengths and weaknesses by deriving the sensitivity, specificity, and precision of each as well as their true positive rate against a larger sample. We selected DBSCAN, HDBSCAN, and Gaussian mixture models for further study, owing to their speed and appropriateness for use with Gaia data. We developed a preprocessing pipeline for Gaia data and developed the algorithms further for the specific application to open clusters. We derived detection rates for all 1385 open clusters in the fields in our study as well as more detailed performance statistics for 100 of these open clusters. DBSCAN was sensitive to 50%-62% of the true positive open clusters in our sample, with generally very good specificity and precision. HDBSCAN traded precision for a higher sensitivity of up to 82%, especially across different distances and scales of open clusters. Gaussian mixture models were slow and only sensitive to 33% of open clusters in our sample, which tended to be larger objects. Additionally, we report on 41 new open cluster candidates detected by HDBSCAN, three of which are closer than 500pc. When used with additional post-processing to mitigate its false positives, we have found that HDBSCAN is the most sensitive and effective algorithm for recovering open clusters in Gaia data. Our results suggest that many more new and already reported open clusters have yet to be detected in Gaia data.2021A&A...646A.104Hhttps://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/cat/J/A+A/646/A104CatalogResearchIsServedByTAP VizieR generic serviceIsServedByConesearch servicerelated-toI/345 : Gaia DR2 (Gaia Collaboration, 2018)J/ApJS/245/32 : Newly identified star clusters in Gaia DR2 (Liu+, 2019)J/A+A/558/A53 : Milky Way global survey of star clusters II (Kharchenko+, 2013)J/A+A/635/A45 : 570 new open clusters in Galactic disc (Castro-Ginard+, 2020)J/A+A/633/A99 : Gaia DR2 open clusters in Milky Way. II (Cantat-Gaudin+, 2020)https://cds.unistra.fr/vizier-org/licences_vizier.htmlhttps://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/646/A104https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/646/A104http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/VizieR-2?-source=J/A+A/646/A104https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/646/A104https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/646/A104http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/votable?-source=J/A+A/646/A104GETtext/xml+votablehttps://tapvizier.cds.unistra.fr/TAPVizieR/tapCone search capability for table J/A+A/646/A104/clusterl (List of detected open clusters by each algorithm)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/clusterl?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/clusterl?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/clusterl?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true103.8017117.99110.005555555555555556Cone search capability for table J/A+A/646/A104/clustern (List of new open clusters reported by this work)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/clustern?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/clustern?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/clustern?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true126.99171-42.772130.005555555555555556Cone search capability for table J/A+A/646/A104/membersl (List of members for detected literature OCs)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/membersl?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/membersl?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/membersl?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true103.7683517.81780.005555555555555556Cone search capability for table J/A+A/646/A104/membersn (List of members for new open clusters)https://vizier.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/membersn?https://vizier.iucaa.in/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/membersn?http://vizieridia.saao.ac.za/viz-bin/conesearch/J/A+A/646/A104/membersn?GETtext/xml+votable180.050000true127.2321-42.879120.0055555555555555564/227 1818 2335 2357 2370 2376 2486 2606 2652 5/333 346 358 361 364-365 377 438 480 482 762-763 772 792 913 915 3246 3317 3319 3488 3490 3497-3498 3518 3572 3574-3575 3581 3586 3603 3606-3607 3649-3651 3656-3657 3659-3660 3681 3841-3844 3846-3849 3852 3857 3860 3869 3926-3927 5204-5205 5207 5334 5364 5376 5378-5379 5382 5384-5385 5387-5388 5396 5411 5414 5417 5419-5420 5422-5423 5530 5552 5563 5905 5908-5909 5911 5949 5992 5994-5995 6081 6091 6116 6118 6124-6125 6127 7204-7205 7207 7229 7244 7277-7279 7288-7290 7295 7365 7376-7377 7554-7555 7561 7563 7567 7576 7661 7663 7666 7672 7674 8004 9309 9331 9333 9335 9337 9339 9433 9436-9438 9445 9456 9465 9474-9475 9479 9484 9486 9508 9513 9811 9814 9817 9819-9820 9822 9851 9855 9934-9935 9940 9942 9949 9951 9956-9957 9969 9980 9982-9983 10122 10154 10157 10419 10428 10541-10543 10552 10554 10591 10597 10599 10615-10617 6/1101 1103 1112 1114 1118-1119 1141 1340-1341 1343 1376 1378-1380 1382 1388 1421-1423 1429 1436 1438 1452-1453 1455 1464 1466 1469 1471-1472 1481-1483 1504-1506 1512 1514 1606-1607 1612-1613 1627 1648-1649 1710-1711 1722 1746-1747 1751 1756-1757 1759 1781 1783 1952 1954 3064 3066-3067 3076-3078 3092 3094 3096-3097 3099-3100 3102-3103 3124 3145 3147-3150 3176-3177 3649 3657-3659 3672 3674 3680-3681 3683-3684 3686 3688 3690 3729 3755 3758-3759 12972-12973 12975 12988 12990 13265-13267 13272 13300-13301 13303 13309 13866-13867 13964 13966 13984-13986 13996-13997 13999 14008 14010-14014 14060-14061 14076 14078-14079 14293-14295 14320-14321 14323 14336-14338 14348 14350 14353 14355-14358 14365-14367 14404 14406-14407 14417-14419 14449 14452-14453 14455 14460 14521 14523 14595 14610-14611 14618-14619 14632-14633 14635 14648-14650 14721 14853-14855 14861 14864 14866 15362-15363 15381-15383 15412-15414 15436-15437 15444 15446-15449 15452-15453 15469-15471 15480 15482 15485 15490-15491 15494 15496-15497 15500 15557 15568 15697-15699 15722-15723 15728 15732-15733 15808-15809 15827 15833 20811 20814-20815 20833 20836 20838 20841 20844-20845 20849 20856 21325 21349-21351 21362 21370-21372 21374 21445 21447 21464 21509-21511 21520-21522 21544-21545 21560 21562 21572-21573 21575 21590 21592 21594-21595 21686-21687 22069 22071 22078-22079 22112 22114-22117 22119 22124 22126 22165 22212 22214-22215 22243 22245-22247 22249-22250 22266 23577 23579-23580 23582 23616 23625-23626 23628-23629 23631 23640-23641 23643 23805-23808 23810 23816 23904 23906 23964-23966 23972 23974 23989-23990 23996 23998-23999 24010 24032 24042 24149 24320-24321 24357-24359 24369 24371-24372 24374 24376 24378 24427 24453 24460-24461 24463 24468 24470 24476 24485 24487 24505 24513 24516 28745 28747-28748 28750 28825 28827 28872 28874 28895 28925 28954 28965 28985 28987 29064 29066-29067 29106-29107 29164 29167 29445 29456-29458 29525 29527 29532-29533 29535 29541 29552 29866 29868-29869 30208-30210 30215 30232 30234-30235 30238 30249 30251 30256-30258 30265 30308-30310 30316 30341-30343 30609-30612 30622 30656-30658 32020-32021 32023 37215 37337-37339 37695 37701-37703 37708-37709 37711 37728-37729 37731 37737-37740 37742-37743 37756-37757 37828 37837-37841 37843 37846 37848-37849 37852 37854 37872 37912-37914 37940 37942-37943 37948 38048-38050 38408 38410 38432-38434 38441 38443 38636 38638 39265 39267 39273-39275 39416 39418-39419 39725 39727 39734 39751 39756-39758 39764 39766-39767 39772 39774-39775 39833 39873 39875 39892 39927 40004 40480 40499 40502 40505 40507-40508 40576-40577 40579-40580 40582 40593 40610-40611 40620 40622-40623 40625 40627 40633-40634 40686-40687 40696 40698-40699 41559 41672-41673 41675 41689-41691 41720 41722-41723 41730 41735 41737 41739-41742 42161-42163 42351 42361-42363 42420-42421 42423 42448-42450 42452 42456-42458 42472-42473 42513 42515-42516 42518 43072-43073 43076-43077https://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/moc/J/A+A/646/A104?format=asciidefaultJ/A+A/646/A104/clusterlList of detected open clusters by each algorithmNameName of the sourcemeta.id;meta.maincharrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordint_RA.icrsRight ascension (ICRS) at Epoch=J2000, proper motions taken into accountdegpos.eq.ranullableindexed_DE.icrsDeclination (ICRS) at Epoch=J2000, proper motions taken into accountdegpos.eq.decnullableindexedIntIDInternal ID of the sourcemeta.idcharAlgorithmAlgorithm used for this detectionmeta.id;stat.fitcharParamParameters of algorithm usedmeta.notecharRA_ICRS? Right ascension (ICRS) at Ep=2015.5degpos.eq.ra;meta.mainnullables_RA_ICRS? Standard deviation of right ascensiondegstat.stdev;pos.eq.radoublenullablee_RA_ICRS? Standard error of right ascensiondegstat.error;pos.eq.radoublenullableDE_ICRS? Declination (ICRS) at Ep=2015.5degpos.eq.dec;meta.mainnullables_DE_ICRS? Standard deviation of declinationdegstat.stdev;pos.eq.decdoublenullablee_DE_ICRS? Standard error of declinationdegstat.error;pos.eq.decdoublenullableGLON? Galactic longitude (2015.5)degpos.galactic.lonnullableGLAT? Galactic latitude (2015.5)degpos.galactic.latdoublenullablepmRA? Proper motion along RA, pmRA*cosDE (2015.5)mas/yrpos.pm;pos.eq.radoublenullables_pmRA? Standard deviation of pmRAmas/yrstat.stdev;pos.pm;pos.eq.radoublenullablee_pmRA? Standard error of pmRAmas/yrstat.error;pos.pm;pos.eq.radoublenullablepmDE? Proper motion along DE (2015.5)mas/yrpos.pm;pos.eq.decdoublenullables_pmDE? Standard deviation of pmDEmas/yrstat.stdev;pos.pm;pos.eq.decdoublenullablee_pmDE? Standard error of pmDEmas/yrstat.error;pos.pm;pos.eq.decdoublenullableplx? Parallaxmaspos.parallax.trigdoublenullables_plx? Standard deviation of parallaxmasstat.stdev;pos.parallaxdoublenullablee_plx? Standard error of parallaxmasstat.error;pos.parallaxdoublenullablerad50? Radius containing 50% of membersdegphys.angSizedoublenullableradtidal? Estimated tidal radiusdegphys.angSizedoublenullableNstars? Number of identified member starsmeta.numberintnullablecst? Cluster significance test scorestat.fit.goodnessdoublenullableSourceSource paper used for crossmatching, only for clusterl.dat file (1)meta.bibcharJ/A+A/646/A104/clusternList of new open clusters reported by this workIntIDInternal ID of the sourcemeta.idcharSimbadSimbad column added by the CDSmeta.ref.urlchar_RA.icrsRight ascension (ICRS) at Epoch=J2000, proper motions taken into accountdegpos.eq.ranullableindexed_DE.icrsDeclination (ICRS) at Epoch=J2000, proper motions taken into accountdegpos.eq.decnullableindexedplx? Parallaxmaspos.parallax.trigdoublenullablerecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintNameName of the sourcemeta.id;meta.maincharAlgorithmAlgorithm used for this detectionmeta.id;stat.fitcharParamParameters of algorithm usedmeta.notecharRA_ICRS? Right ascension (ICRS) at Ep=2015.5degpos.eq.ra;meta.mainnullables_RA_ICRS? Standard deviation of right ascensiondegstat.stdev;pos.eq.radoublenullablee_RA_ICRS? Standard error of right ascensiondegstat.error;pos.eq.radoublenullableDE_ICRS? Declination (ICRS) at Ep=2015.5degpos.eq.dec;meta.mainnullables_DE_ICRS? Standard deviation of declinationdegstat.stdev;pos.eq.decdoublenullablee_DE_ICRS? Standard error of declinationdegstat.error;pos.eq.decdoublenullableGLON? Galactic longitude (2015.5)degpos.galactic.lonnullableGLAT? Galactic latitude (2015.5)degpos.galactic.latdoublenullablepmRA? Proper motion along RA, pmRA*cosDE (2015.5)mas/yrpos.pm;pos.eq.radoublenullables_pmRA? Standard deviation of pmRAmas/yrstat.stdev;pos.pm;pos.eq.radoublenullablee_pmRA? Standard error of pmRAmas/yrstat.error;pos.pm;pos.eq.radoublenullablepmDE? Proper motion along DE (2015.5)mas/yrpos.pm;pos.eq.decdoublenullables_pmDE? Standard deviation of pmDEmas/yrstat.stdev;pos.pm;pos.eq.decdoublenullablee_pmDE? Standard error of pmDEmas/yrstat.error;pos.pm;pos.eq.decdoublenullables_plx? Standard deviation of parallaxmasstat.stdev;pos.parallaxdoublenullablee_plx? Standard error of parallaxmasstat.error;pos.parallaxdoublenullablerad50? Radius containing 50% of membersdegphys.angSizedoublenullableradtidal? Estimated tidal radiusdegphys.angSizedoublenullableNstars? Number of identified member starsmeta.numberintnullablecst? Cluster significance test scorestat.fit.goodnessdoublenullableSourceSource paper used for crossmatching, only for clusterl.dat file (1)meta.bibcharJ/A+A/646/A104/memberslList of members for detected literature OCsAlgorithmAlgorithm used for this detectionmeta.id;stat.fitcharParamParameters of algorithm usedmeta.notecharGaiaDR2Gaia DR2 source ID of this sourcemeta.idRA_ICRSRight ascension (ICRS) at Ep=2015.5degpos.eq.ra;meta.mainindexede_RA_ICRSStandard error of right ascensiondegstat.error;pos.eq.radoubleDE_ICRSDeclination (ICRS) at Ep=2015.5degpos.eq.dec;meta.mainindexed_RA.icrsRight ascension (ICRS) at Epoch=J2000, proper motions taken into accountdegpos.eq.ranullableindexed_DE.icrsDeclination (ICRS) at Epoch=J2000, proper motions taken into accountdegpos.eq.decnullableindexedGLATGalactic latitude (2015.5)degpos.galactic.latdoublerecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintNameName of the sourcemeta.id;meta.maincharIntIDInternal ID of the sourcemeta.idchare_DE_ICRSStandard error of declinationdegstat.error;pos.eq.decdoubleGLONGalactic longitude (2015.5)degpos.galactic.lonpmRAProper motion along RA, pmRA*cosDE (2015.5)mas/yrpos.pm;pos.eq.radoublee_pmRAStandard error of pmRAmas/yrstat.error;pos.pm;pos.eq.radoublepmDEProper motion along DE (2015.5)mas/yrpos.pm;pos.eq.decdoublee_pmDEStandard error of pmDEmas/yrstat.error;pos.pm;pos.eq.decdoubleplxParallaxmaspos.parallax.trigdoublee_plxStandard error of parallaxmasstat.error;pos.parallaxdoubleGmagMagnitude in the G bandmagphot.mag;em.optdoubleBPmagMagnitude in the BP bandmagphot.mag;em.opt.BdoubleRPmagMagnitude in the RP bandmagphot.mag;em.opt.RdoubleFGFlux in the G bandphot.flux.density;em.optdoublee_FGStandard error on flux in the G bandstat.errordoubleFBPFlux in the BP bandphot.flux.density;em.opt.Bdoublee_FBPStandard error on flux in the BP bandstat.errordoubleFRPFlux in the RP bandphot.flux.density;em.opt.Rdoublee_FRPStandard error on flux in the RP bandstat.errordoubleProbMembership probabilitydegstat.probabilitydoubleJ/A+A/646/A104/membersnList of members for new open clusterse_RA_ICRSStandard error of right ascensiondegstat.error;pos.eq.radoubleDE_ICRSDeclination (ICRS) at Ep=2015.5degpos.eq.dec;meta.mainSimbadSimbad column added by the CDSmeta.ref.urlchar_DE.icrsDeclination (ICRS) at Epoch=J2000, proper motions taken into accountdegpos.eq.decnullableindexed_RA.icrsRight ascension (ICRS) at Epoch=J2000, proper motions taken into accountdegpos.eq.ranullableindexedrecnoRecord number assigned by the VizieR team. Should Not be used for identification.meta.recordintNameName of the sourcemeta.id;meta.maincharIntIDInternal ID of the sourcemeta.idcharAlgorithmAlgorithm used for this detectionmeta.id;stat.fitcharParamParameters of algorithm usedmeta.notecharGaiaDR2Gaia DR2 source ID of this sourcemeta.idRA_ICRSRight ascension (ICRS) at Ep=2015.5degpos.eq.ra;meta.maine_DE_ICRSStandard error of declinationdegstat.error;pos.eq.decdoubleGLONGalactic longitude (2015.5)degpos.galactic.lonGLATGalactic latitude (2015.5)degpos.galactic.latdoublepmRAProper motion along RA, pmRA*cosDE (2015.5)mas/yrpos.pm;pos.eq.radoublee_pmRAStandard error of pmRAmas/yrstat.error;pos.pm;pos.eq.radoublepmDEProper motion along DE (2015.5)mas/yrpos.pm;pos.eq.decdoublee_pmDEStandard error of pmDEmas/yrstat.error;pos.pm;pos.eq.decdoubleplxParallaxmaspos.parallax.trigdoublee_plxStandard error of parallaxmasstat.error;pos.parallaxdoubleGmagMagnitude in the G bandmagphot.mag;em.optdoubleBPmagMagnitude in the BP bandmagphot.mag;em.opt.BdoubleRPmagMagnitude in the RP bandmagphot.mag;em.opt.RdoubleFGFlux in the G bandphot.flux.density;em.optdoublee_FGStandard error on flux in the G bandstat.errordoubleFBPFlux in the BP bandphot.flux.density;em.opt.Bdoublee_FBPStandard error on flux in the BP bandstat.errordoubleFRPFlux in the RP bandphot.flux.density;em.opt.Rdoublee_FRPStandard error on flux in the RP bandstat.errordoubleProbMembership probabilitydegstat.probabilitydouble